Source Rocks And Sorcerers: Decoding The Origin Of The Niger Delta Petroleum
),
(1) Institute of Natural Resources, Environment and Sustainable Development, University of Port Harcourt
Corresponding Author
Abstract
Against the present-day credo of the organic origin of petroleum, it may be difficult to believe that in the early days of the oil industry, the abiogenic (inorganic) origin of petroleum held sway. In 1877, Russian Scientist Mendeleev (of the Periodic Table fame) proposed that metal carbides deep within the earth reacted with water at high temperatures to form acetylene which subsequently condensed to form heavier hydrocarbons (as is readily demonstrated in the lab). CaC2 + 2H2O = C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
In 1890, Sokoloff propounded that `bitumina', originated from meteorites and that this petroleum was extruded from the earth's interior into the surface sediments. They were the first Sorcerers. Others (eg. Vernadsky, Kudryavtsev) were to follow with differing concepts of the Inorganic Origin of petroleum including Volcanic Origin Theory, Earthquake Outgassing, etc. Their views received great support from their peers (and still linger in some quarters!). Then came the period in the early 1900s when advances in the knowledge of the composition of petroleum saw the ascendancy of the Theory of Organic Origin. In particular, the discovery of the optical activity of petroleum (Walden, 1906) and of the presence of chlorophyll porphyrins (Treibs, 1934) confirmed the low temperature origin and history of petroleum and thus cemented the Organic Theory. Subsequently, the search for petroleum moved to the great sedimentary basins of the world. The successes scored seemed to put paid to the inorganic Theory. The organic Sorcerers seemed to have won. Or did they? In the 1990s, a new set of Sorcerers led by T. Gold reignited the Inorganic Theory. Largely supported by the state-owned Swedish electricity utility Vattenfall, he caused a deep well (6.5 km by 1997) to be drilled into the crystalline basement rocks in Sweden in search of predicted petroleum of inorganic origin but the outcome was a dry hole. Was that the end of the Inorganic Theory? Perhaps, not.
Keywords
References
Adegoke,O.S., Omatsola, M.E. and Salami,M.B. 1976. Benthonic foraminiferal biofacies off the
Niger Delta. Ist Int. Symposium Benthonic Foraminifera of Continental Margin. Part A.Ecology and
Biology of Maritime Sediments.Spec. Publ.,1:272-292. of Continental Margin
Ajakaiye, D.E., and Bally, A.W. 2002.Some Structural Styles on Reflection Profiles from Offshore Niger Delta. Search and Discovery Article #10031
Allen, J.R.L.,1955a. Late Quaternary Niger Delta, and Adjacent Areas: Sedimentary Environments and Lithofacies. A. A.P.G Bull.v.49, p547-600.
Allen, J.R.L.,1964. The Nigerian Continental Margin: Bottom Sediments, Submarine Morphology, and Geological Evolution. Marine Geology, v.1,
p 298-332
Avbovbo, A.A. 1978A. Geothermal Gradients in the South Nigeria Basin. Bull. Canadian. Petr. Geol.v.26, p.268-274.
Banks, L.M.,1966. Geologic Aspects of the Origin of Petroleum. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Vol.50, No 2(Feb.1966) pp.367-400.
Barker, C., 1972, Aquathermal pressuring—role of temperature in development of abnormal pressure zones: AAPG Bulletin, v. 56, p. 2068- 2071.
Beka,F.T. and Oti,M.N. 1995. The Distal Offshore Niger Delta: Frontier Prospects of a mature Petroleum Province. In: M.N. Oti & G. Postma (Eds): Geology of deltas. Balkema, Rotterdam, 237241.
Brooks,B.T., 1954. Origin of Petroleum: The Chemistry of Petroleum Hydrocarbons, ed., by
Brooks, Kurtz, Boord, and Schmeling: Rheinhold Publ. Coorp., N.Y.664p.v1, Chap. P. 6, p.83-102
Bustin, R. M., 1988, Sedimentology and characteristics of dispersed organic matter in Tertiary Niger
Delta: origin of source rocks in a deltaic environment: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 72, p. 277-298
Carr, A.D., Snape, C.E., Meredith, W., Uguna, C., Scotchman, I.C., Davis, R.C., 2009. The effect of water pressure on hydrocarbon generation reactions: some inferences from laboratory experiments. Petroleum Geoscience.15, 17-26.
Carr, A.D., Uguna, C.N. 2015. Some thoughts on the influence of pressure and thermal history assumptions on petroleum system modelling. Journal of Petroleum Geology. 38, 459-465. Chapman, R. E., 1972, Primary migration of petroleum from clay source rocks: AAPG Bulletin, v.56, p. 2185-2191.
Chukwu, H.C. and Ibe, A.C, 2015. Topography and Lithofacies of the Sea floor in Meren Field, Offshore Western Niger Delta. International Journal of Science Inventions Today 2015, 4(6), 524551
Corridor, F., Shaw, J.H., and Bilotti, F., 2005. Structural Styles in Deep Water Fold and Thrust Beltsof the Niger Delta. AAPG Bull., 89,753-780.
Damuth, J.,1993. Neogene Gravity Tectonics and Depositional Processes on the Niger Delta Continental Margin. Marine & Petroleum Geology, vol..11, pp320-346.
Dobryansky, A.F. La Transformation du Petrole brut dans la nature: Rev.Inst.Francais Petrole,v.18, no 1,p,.41-49
Doust, H., and Omatsola, E., 1990, Niger Delta, in, Edwards, J. D., and Santogrossi, P.A., eds., Divergent/passive Margin Basins, AAPG Memoir 48: Tulsa, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 239-248
Dow, W. G., 1978, Petroleum source beds on continental slopes and rises: AAPG Bulletin, V. 62, p. 1584-1606.
Edjedawe, J. E., 1986. The Expulsion Criterion in the Evaluation of the Petroleum Source Beds of the Tertiary Niger Delta Journal of Petroleum Geology, 9. 4. pp.439-450.
Egbogah, E. O. and D. O. Lambert-Aikhionbare 1979: Recent Mining Activities in Nigeria. World Mining Journal Vol 32, No 8 pp 177 - 178.
Egbogah, E. O and D. O. Lambert-Aikhionbare 1980: Possible New potentials of the Niger Delta.
Oil and Gas Journal Vol 78. PP 176 - 184 (April 19800
Ejedawe, J. E. and Okoh, S.U. 1981, Prediction of optimal depths of petroleum occurrence in the
Niger delta basin: Oil & Gas Journal,v. 79, n. 23, p. 190-204.
Ejedawe, J.E., Coker, S.J.L., Lambeth-Aikhionabare, D.O., Alofe, K.B. & Adoh, E.O., 1984., Evolution of oil-generative window and oil and gas occurrence in Tertiary Niger Delta Basin. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 68, 1744–1751.
Ejedawe, J.E., 1981. Patterns of incidence of oil reserves in Niger Delta Basin. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 65, 1574–1585.
Ekweozor C.M and Daukoru, E.M.1984. Petroleum Source Bed Evaluation of Tertiary Niger Delta -Reply. AAPG Bull., 68:390-394
Ekweozor, C. M. and Okoye, N.V. 1980, Petroleum source-bed evaluation of Tertiary Niger delta: AAPG Bulletin, v. 64, p. 1251-1259.
Ekweozor, C.M and Udo, O.T.1987. The Oleanane: Origin, Maturation and Limits of Occurrence in Southern Nigeria Sedimentary Basin. Org Geochemistry, 13.
Evamy, D.D.J., Haremboure, P., Kamerling, W.A., Knaap, F.Molloy, A. & Rowlands, M.H., 1978. Hydrocarbon habitat of the Tertiary Niger Delta. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 62, 1–39.
Ferguson, J. and Ibe, A.C. 1981. Origin of Light Hydrocarbons in Carbonate Rocks. Journal. Petrol. Geol. 4: 103 - 107.
Ferguson, J., Bush, P and Clarke, B.A. 1981 A Note on the Simulation of the Early Diagenesis of Recent Carbonate Ooids. Journal. Petrol. Geol. 4, 2, pp 191-193.
Ferguson, J. and Ibe, A.C. 1982. Some Aspects of the Occurrence of Proto-kerogen in Recent Oolites. Journal Petrol. Geol. 4: 267 - 285.
Ferguson, J., Bush, P.R., Clarke, 1984. The role of organic Matter in the Early Diagenesis of Carbonate Ooids-An experimental Study. Journal of Petroleum Geology,7,3, pp245-266. Fisher, A. A., 1979, Petroleum source rock studies of selected wells, Niger delta complex, western Nigeria: PhD Thesis, University of London, London.
Frankl, E. J., and Cordry, E.A. 1967, The Niger Delta Oil Province— Recent Developments Onshore and Offshore: 7th World Petroleum Congress, Mexico City, Proceedings, v. 2, p. 125-209.
Fujita, Y., 1977, The role of shale porosity anomaly in hydrocarbon exploration: Journal of Japanese Association of Petroleum Technology, v.42, p.107-116.
Fuloria,R.C. 1967.Source Rock Criteria For Their Recognition. Bull.AAPG, vol 51, No 6, pp 842848.
Gransch, J. A., and Eisma, E. 1970, Characterization of the insoluble organic matter of sediments by pyrolysis, in O. D. Hobson and G. C. Spears, eds., Advances in Organic geochemistry, 1966: Oxford, Pergamon Press, p. 407-426.
Gold, T., 1985. The Origin of Natural Gas and Petroleum and the prognosis for Future Supplies,
Ann. Rev. En.10(1985) pp.53-77
Haack, R.C., Sundararaman, P., Diedjomahor, J.O., Xian, H., Grant, N.J., May, E.D., and Kelsch , K., 2000. Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria. In:Mello, M.R. and Katz, R.J. Petroleum
Systems of South Atlantic Margins. AAPG Memoir73, P.213-231
Hedberg, H.D.1964. Geologic Aspects of Origin of Petroleum.Bull AAPG, vol,48, No 11, pp17551803.
Hedberg, H.D. 1968. Significance of High -Wax Oils with Respect to Genesis of petroleum, Bull AAPG, vol.52, no. 5, pp736-750.
Herdberg, H.D.,Moody,J.D.,and Hedberg,R.M, 1979.Petroleum Prospects of Deep Offshore. AAPG Bull., v63,p286-300.
Hunt, J.M., 1990, Generation and migration of petroleum from abnormally pressured fluid compartments: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 74, p. 1-12
Ibe, A.C.1980. Origin of Light Hydrocarbons in Recent Marine Ooids in Relation to Petroleum
Occurrence in Carbonate Rocks. Ph.D Thesis. University of London, U.K. 279p
Ibe, A.C. 1982. A review of potential economic mineral resources in offshore Nigeria. NIOMR Tech. Paper No. 8.
Ibe, A.C. 1982. Organic geochemistry of Recent Marine Ooids in Relation to Petroleum Occurrence in Ancient Oolites. In Proc. Joint Oceanographic Assembly, Halifax, Canada. Aug. 1982. Abstr. p. 22
Ibe, A.C. 1983. Occurrence of Proto-kerogen in Recent Marine Oolites in Relation to Petroleum Occurrence in Carbonate rocks. In Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. pp. 1117 - 1118.
Ibe, A.C. 1983. Organic Geochemistry of Recent Marine Ooids as a Key to Origin of Petroleum in
Oolite Reservoirs. AAPG Bull., 69,486-487(Abstr)
Ibe, A.C, 1983. Exploitable and Potential Minerals in the Shallow Ocean off Nigeria. In Proc19thNMGS Conference, Warri, Feb 28-March 3, 1983. (Abstr.)
Ibe, A.C., Ferguson, J., Kinghorn, R.R.F. and Rahman, M. 1983. Organic Matter in Carbonate Sediments in Relation to Petroleum Occurrence. Journal Petrol. Geol.6: 55 - 70.
Ibe, A.C.1983.SourceBed Implications of the Organic Geochemistry of the Proto-kerogen from Recent Ooids. 11th International Meeting on Organic Geochemistry. The Hague,Sept 1993, P.115(Abstr.)
Ibe, A.C, Antia, E.E. and Lambert-Aikhionbare, D.O. 1983. Offshore Nigeria as a Source of Raw Materials for the Steel Industry. In Proc. First National Conference on Steel. Delta Steel Co. Ovwian-Aladja, Bendel State, 18-20 April, 1983. pp. 165-176.
Ibe, A.C. 1984. In situ Formation of Petroleum in Oolites - I Scheme of hydrocarbon generation and accumulation. Jour. PetroL Geol. 7: 267 – 276
Ibe, A.C.1984. Coastal Dynamics and Erosion in Awoye and Molume villages in OML-), Ondo State. Nigeria. A Report for Gulf Oil Co. Nig. Ltd. 123 p.
Ibe, A.C.1985. Hydrographic Survey of the Entrance and Access into the Benin River (OML 43), A Report for Shell Petroleum Development Co.Ltd., 25p +Charts
Ibe, A.C. 1985. A Study of Currents and Possible Scouring Effects at Proposed Davy Banks Location in OML 14, Cross River State. A Report for Shell Petroleum Development Co. Ltd. 64p. + Charts.
Ibe, A.C. 1985. In Situ Formation of Petroleum in Oolites - II. A Case Study of the Arab Formation Oolite Reservoirs. Jour. Petrol. Geol. 8: 331 - 341.
Ibe, A.C. and Ajayi, T.O. 1985. Possible Upwelling Phenomenon off the Nigerian Coast. NIOMR Tech. Paper. No. 25.
Ibe, A.C. and Awosika, L.F.1986c Sedimentology of the Barrier Bar Complexes in Nigeria. NIOMR Tech. Paper, No 28.
Ibe, A. C., 1986b. A study of Petroleum Related Pollution in Nigeria. IOC-UNESCO Contract No.SC/UNEP/247.656.6, 16p.
Ibe, A.C 1986a A Review of the Scientific Knowledge of Physical Oceanographic Conditions Including Currents and Dispersion for the West and Central African Region. IOC –UNESCO
Contract No. SC/UNEP 247.612.6, 25p.
Ibe, A.C, Ajao, E. A., Oyewo, E. O. Awosika, L. F., Ihenyen, A. E., Tiamiyu, A. I., Ibe, C. E., Inegbedion, L. And Adekanye, J. E., 1987. Physico-chemical Parameters and Dynamics of the Nearshore Ocean. A Special Project for the Nigerian Navy. Vol.I and Vol.II, 56p + Charts.
Ibe, A.C.1987.Source Rocks and Sorcerers: On the Origin of the Nigerian Petroleum, 1987 Distinguished Lecture, Nigerian Association of Petroleum Explorationists (NAPE). Eko Hotel, Victoria Island, Lagos.
Ibe,A.C, Awosika,L.F, Ihenyen,A.E. Inegbidion, L, Ibe, C.E., and Adekanye,J.E., 1988.
Bathhymetric Charting of the Nearshore (0-10m) Ocean at Ajegunle, Awoye and Odunoyinbo, Ondo State, Nigeria. A Report for Adeyemi Olubowale and Partners, 19p +Charts
Ibe,A.C, Awosika,L.F, Ihenyen,A.E. Inegbidion, L, Ibe, C.E., and Adekanye,J.E., 1988.
Bathhymetric Charting of the Nearshore (0-10m) Ocean at Ajegunle, Awoye and Odunoyinbo,
Ondo State, Nigeria. A Report for Adeyemi Olubowale and Partners, 19p +Charts
Ibe, A.C 1988b. Coastline Erosion in Nigeria. Ibadan University Press, 217 p
Ibe, A.C. 1988c. The Niger Delta and Global Rise in Sea Level. In: Proc. SCOPE Workshop on sea level rise and subsiding coastal areas, Bangkok, 1988. J. Milliman and U.Haq eds Contribution No 7.
Ibe, A.C., Inegbidion, L. Egberongbe, F.O. and Orupabo, S. 1989 On Line Transition Model for Nigerian Shoreline. A Case Study of Victoria Bar Beach, Lagos. NIOMR Tech. Paper No. 49. Ibe, A.C. and Quellennec, R.E.,1989. Methodology for Assessment and Control of Coastal Erosion in West and Central Africa. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 107, 125p. (In French and English)
Ibe, A.C. and Quellennec, R.E.,1989. Methodology for Assessment and Control of Coastal Erosion in West and Central Africa. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 107, 125p. (In French and English)
Ibe, A.C, Awosika, L.F. and Ihenyen, A.E., Tiamiyu, A.I. and Ibe, C. E. 1989. A study of currents and possible scouring effects at a proposed Oil Well location (OML 43) in the Cross River Estuary, Nigeria. In Proc. Second International Conference on Geomorphology and Environment, Frankfurt, Germany, 3-9 Sept. 1989
Ibe, A. C., Awosika, L. F., Ibe, C. E., Inegbidion, L. E. and Adekanye, J. E., 1989. Hydrographic and Topographic Survey of the Ugborodo Shoreline, Bendel State. A Report for Oluonye and Partners, 24p + Maps.
Ibe, A.C., Awosika, L.F. and Ihenyen, A.E. 1989. Marine Geology and Sediment Dynamics of the Mahin Mud Beach. In Proc. International Conference on Tidal Flats. Shangai, China,9-14 Oct. 1989
Ibe, A.C., Awosika, L.F., and Udo-Aka, M.A. 1990. Impact of Sea Level Rise on the Nigerian
Coastal Zone. In: Titus, J.G. (ed.) Changing Climate and the Coast; Vol.1. Washington:
Environmental Protection Agency. pp. 49-65
Ibe, A.C.1990. Adjustments to the Impact of Sea Level Rise Along the West and Central African Coasts. In: Titus, J.G. (ed.) Changing Climate and the Coast; Vol.2. Washington: Environmental Protection Agency. pp. 3 -12.
Ibe, A.C. 1990. Global Climate Change and the Vulnerability of the Nigerian Coastal Zone to Sea level Rise: Impacts and Responses Measures. NIOMR Tech. Paper No. 52, 39p
Ibe, A.C. 1993. Impact of Future Sea Level Rise on the Niger Delta of Nigeria.InProc. Intern.
Workshop on Sea Level Changes and their Consequences for Hydrology and Water Management. Noordwijkerhout, Netherlands 12 - 23 April 1993. pp 55 - 65.
Ibe, A.C. and Ojo, S.O. 1994. Implications of expected climatic changes in the coastal and marine environment in West and Central Africa. UNEP RSRS No. 148 (In French and English) Ibe, A.C. 1995. Chapter 13. The Niger Delta and the Projected Global Rise in Sea Level. In Milliman, J.D. and Haq, B.U. eds. Sea Level Rise and Coastal Subsidence: Causes and Strategies. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp 249-267
Ibe, A.C. 1996. Chapter 10. Coastal and Oceanic Problems in Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Benneh, G. Morgan, W.B. and Uitto, J.I. (eds). Sustaining the future: Economic, Social and Environmental Change in Sub-Saharan Africa United Nations University Press. 495p.
Ibe, A.C, Zabi,S.G. (eds) 1998. State of the Coastal and Marine Environment of the Gulf of Guinea, CEDA, Benin. 158 p.
Ibe, A.C. (ed) 1998 Perspectives in Coastal Areas Management in the Gulf of Guinea. CEDA, Benin. 81p.
Ibe, A.C. (ed) 1998 Perspectives in Coastal Areas Management in the Gulf of Guinea. CEDA, Benin. 81p.
Ibe, A.C. and Csizer, Z... 1998. The Gulf of Guinea as a Large Marine Ecosystem. Nature and Resources UNESCO, 34:3 pp 30-39.
Ibe, A.C. Awosika, L.F, and Aka, K. (eds), 1998. Nearshore Dynamics and Sedimentology of the Gulf of Guinea, CEDA, Benin. 221 p.
Ibe, A.C, Grigalunas, T.A, Mee, L.D and Csizer, Z., 2001. Integrated Assessment, Management and Governance in River Basins, Coastal Zones and Large Marine Ecosystems. AStrategy Document. Vienna: UNIDO. 57 P.
Ibe, A.C. and Abe, J. A. (eds) 2003. Introduction to the Physical Oceanography of the Gulf of Guinea. CEDA, Benin .185p
Ibe, A.C.(Ed), 2006. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem, GEF/UNIDO/UNDP/UNEP/US-NOAA/NEPAD, 2006, 175pp.
Ibe, A.C.2011b.Towards a Low Carbon Economy: A National Climate Change Policy for Nigeria. A Policy Document prepared Under Contract for the Special Climate Change Unit, Federal Ministry of Environment, Abuja.ACI Environment and Resources (Nig) Ltd. 27p
Ibe, A.C., 2013. From Hocus Pocus to Divination: A need for Strategic Planning for the Niger Delta. Being a Key Note Address to the Conference of U.N Sustainable Solutions Network-Nigeria. University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria, 13-14 July, 2013.
Ibe,A.C. 2015. Mineral Exploration in Offshore Nigeria and the Blue Economy. Being a Key Note Address to the 51st Annual Conference and Exhibitions of the Nigerian Mining and Geosciences Society, Eko Hotel and Suites, Victoria Island, Lagos.
Ibe C.M. 2002 Wole Soyinka’s Vision of African Independence in A Dance of the Forests, MA
Thesis, University of Cocody, Cote’d’ Ivoire, 72 p.
Johnson, C.O. 2016. Reservoir Characteristics of Olive Field Using Seismic and Well Log Data, Onshore Niger Delta, Nigeria. MSc Dissertation, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Klett, T.R., Ahlbrandt, T.S., Schmoker, J.W., and Dolton, J.L., 1997, Ranking of the world’s oil and gas provinces by known petroleum volumes: U.S. Geological Survey Open-file Report-97-463, CD-
ROM
Kidwell, A.L. and Hunt J.M., 191958.Migration of Oil in Recent Sediments of Pedernales, Venezuela. IN. Habitatof Oil.AAPG. p790-817.
Komar, P.D. --- Ibe, A.C.--- et al. 1991. Response of Beaches to Sea – level Changes: A Review of Predictive Models. Journal of Coastal Research, 7 (3), 895 – 921.
Kulke, H., 1995, Nigeria, in H. Kulke, ed., Regional petroleum geology of the world. Part II: Africa, America, Australia and Antarctica: Berlin, Gebruder Borntraeger, p.143-172.
Lambert- Aikhionbare and Ibe, A.C.1980, The Agbada shales as major source rocks for the Niger delta Petroleum: Abstracts of Proceedings, 16th Annual Conference, Nigerian Mining and Geosciences Society, Lagos, Nigeria, April14-16, 1980. p.14.
Lambert- Aikhionbare and Shaw, H.F.1982. Significance of Clays in the Petroleum Geology of the Niger Delta. Clay Minerals (1982)17, 91-103.
Lambert-Aikhionbare and Unomah, 1995. Importance of Authigenic clays in Source Rock Recognition in the Niger Delta in: M.N. Oti & G. Postma (Eds): Geology of deltas. Balkema, Rotterdam, 279-286.
Lambert-Aikhionbare, D. O., 1981, Sandstone diagenesis and its relation to petroleum generation and migration in the Niger delta: PhD Thesis, University of London, London, 298 p.
Lambert-Aikhionbare, D.O.,Bush,, P.R., and Ibe, A.C., Integrated Geological and Geochemical Interpretation of Source Rock Studies in the Niger Delta. J. Mining and Geol.v26, p97-106
Lambert-Aikhionbare, D.O. and Ibe, A.C., 1984.Petroleum Source Bed Evaluation of Tertiary Niger Delta: Discussion. The American Assoc of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin.v.68., No 3(March, 1984, p387-394
Landais, P., Michels, R., Elie, M., 1994. Are Time and Temperature the only Constraints to the to the simulation of organic matter maturation? Organic Geochemistry. 22, 617-630. Landes, K.K. 1960.
Ubiquity of Petroleum, Bull AAPG,vol 44, No 8,pp1418-1419
Lehner, P., and De Ruiter, P.A.C., 1977, Structural History of Atlantic Margin of Africa: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 61, p. 961-981.
Levorsen, A.I.1954. Geology of Petroleum: Freeman, San Francisco, 703 p
Lewis, C. R., and S. C. Rose, 1970, A theory relating high temperatures and overpressures: Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 22, p. 11-16.
Mango, F.D. 1997.Transition Metals in thr Generation of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Nature368, 536-538.
McCartney, J. T., and Teichmuller, M. 1972, Classification of coals according to degree of coalification by reflectance of vitrinite component: Fuel, v.51, p.64-68.
Magara, K., 1980, Evidences of primary oil migration: AAPG Bulletin, v.64, p. 2108-21 17. Mendeleev, D, L’Origin duPetrole, Revue Scientifique 2e Ser., viii,409-416
Merki, P. Structural Geology of the Cenozoic Niger Delta. In Dessauvagie, T.F. and Whiteman, I.I.(Eds). African Geology. Department of Geology, University of Ibadan, p635-646
Michels, R., Landais, P., Philp, R.P., Torkelson, B.E., 1994. Effects of pressure on organic matter maturation during confined pyrolysis of Woodford kerogen. Energy & Fuels. 8, 741-754. Michels, R., Landais, P., Torkelson, B.E., Philp, R.P., 1995. Effects of effluents and water pressure on oil generation during confined pyrolysis and high-pressure hydrous pyrolysis. Geochimica et
CosmochimicaActa.59, 1589-1604.
Momper, J.A. and Williams, J.A. 1970. Source Bed Performance During Petroleum Generation and Expulsion. Pan American Petroleum Corporation Research Center-Geological Research Division, April, 1970.
Monthioux, M., 1988. Expected mechanisms in nature and in confined- system pyrolysis, Fuel. 67, 843-847.
Monthioux, M., Landais, P., Durand, B., 1986. Comparison between extracts from natural and artificial maturation series of Mahakam Delta coals. Organic Geochemistry. 10, 299-311. Monthioux, M., Landais,
P., Monin, J.C., 1985. Comparison between natural and artificial maturation series of humic coals from the Mahakam Delta Indonesia. Organic Geochemistry. 8, 275-292.
Neglia, S., 1980, Migration of fluids in sedimentary basins: reply to R. E. Chapman: AAPG Bulletin, v. 64, p. 1543-1547.
Nwachukwu, J.I and Chukwura,P.I. 1986. Organic Matter of Agbada Formation, Niger Delta. AAPG Bull. 70(1):48-55.
Nwachukwu, J.I., Oluwole, A.F., Asubiojo, O.I., Filby, R.H., Grimm, C.A., and Fitzgerald, S., 1995,
A geochemical evaluation of Niger Delta crude oils, in, Oti, M.N., and Postma, G., eds., Geology of Deltas: Rotterdam, A.A. Balkema, p. 287-300.z
Omotoye, S. J., Adekola, S.A., Adepoju, A. and Akinlua, A.,2016. Thermal Maturity Assessment and Characterization of Selected Oil Samples from the Niger Delta, Nigeria Energy Fuels, 2016, 30 (1), pp 104–11
Onuoha, K. M. 1981a. Sediment Loading and Subsidence in the Niger Delta Sedimentary Basin. J.
Mining and Geology, v.18(1), p138-140
Osborne, M.J., Swarbrick, R.E., 1997. Mechanisms for Generating Overpressure in Sedimentary Basins: A re-evaluation. AAPG Bulletin. 81, 1023-1041.
Ostensson, O. 1997. Mining and the Environment: The Economic Agenda. Industry and
Environment, UNEP, October- November,1997, pp29-31
Pepper, A.S., Corvi, P.J., 1995. Simple kinetic models of petroleum formation. Part I: oil and gas generation from kerogen. Marine and Petroleum Geology. 12, 291–319.
Petters , S.W 1984. An Ancient Submarine Canyon in the Oligocene-Miocene of the Western Niger Delta. Sedimentology, 31,805-810.
Petters, S.W,1995. Foraminiferal Biofacies in the Nigerian Rift and Continental Margin Deltas. In: M.N. Oti & G. Postma (Eds): Geology of deltas. Balkema, Rotterdam, 219-235.
Petters, S.W., 1982. Central West African Cretaceous-Tertiary benthic foraminifera and stratigraphy: Palaeontographia A 179, 1–104.
Pettters, S.W., 1983a. Gulf of Guinea Planktonic Foraminiferal Biochronology and Geological
History of the South Atlantic. J. Foramina. Res., 13:32-59
Porrenga, D.H.1967. Clay minerals in Recent Sediments of the Niger Delta. Clays Miner. 14,221233
Portmann, J.E. Biney, C. Ibe, A.C and Zabi, S.G., 1989) Health of the Ocean: WACAF Region. UNEP RSRS No. 108, 36p. (In French and English).
Reed,K.J., 1969. Environment of Deposition of Source Beds of High -Wax Oil. Bull. AAPG, vol53, no 7, pp. 1502-1596.
Reijers, T.J.A. 2011.Stratigraphy and Sedimentology of the Niger Delta. Geologos, 2011,17(3):133162.
Reijers, T.J.A., Petters, S.W. & Nwajide, C.S., 1997. The Niger Delta Basin.In: R.C. Selley (Ed.): African basins. Sedimentary Basins of the World (Elsevier, Amsterdam) 3, 145–168.
Rogers, M.A, 1979. Application of Organic Facies Concepts to Hydrocarbon Source Rock Evaluation. Panel Discussion,10th World Petroleum Congress, Bucharest, 1979. PD1(3).
Schlumberger Inc, 1985. Well Evaluation Conference Nigeria, 292pp
Sengupta, S., 1974, The effects of temperature and pressure on lycopodiun clavalum spores, in Advances in Organic Geochemistry, 1973, p. 305-306.
Short, K.C. & Stauble, A.J., 1967. Outline geology of the Niger Delta. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 51, 761–779.
Simulation of Organic Matter Maturation? Organic Geochemistry. 22, 617-630.
Sokoloff, W.1889. Kosmischer Ursprung der Bituminus, Bull. Soc. Imp. Natural Moscau, Nuov. Ser 3(1889) pp 720-739
Stacher, P. 1995. Present Understanding of the Niger Delta Hydrocarbon Habitat In: M.N. Oti & G. Postma (Eds): Geology of deltas. Balkema, Rotterdam, 257-267.
Tao, W., Zou, Y.-R., Carr, A., Liu, J., Peng, P’a., 2010. Study of the influence of pressure on enhanced gaseous hydrocarbon yield under high pressure-high temperature coal pyrolysis. Fuel. 89, 3590-3597.
Teas, L.P. and Miller,C.R., 1933.Racoon Bend Oil,Field, Auatin County, Texas,AAPG Bull.,v.17, no , 1459-149112
Thomas, 1995, Niger delta oil production, reserves, field sizes assessed: Oil & Gas Journal, November 13, 1995, p. 101-103.
Tissot, B.P. and Welte, D, H. 2004. Petroleum Formation and Occurrence2nd Ed, Springer- Verlag, New York, 538p.
Treibs, A.1934. Chlorophyll-und Haminderivative in bitumen in Bituminosen Gesteinen, Erdoel, Erdwachsen und Asphaltene, Ann., 410 (1934), p.42; ibid., Ann., 517(1935), p.172. Tobor, J.G. and Ibe, A.C.,1992. Climatic Change and Coastal Resources and Installations in Nigeria: Impacts and Response Measures. Lagos: Francisgraphix Ltd. 150p.
Tuttle, L.W., Brown field, M.E., and Charpentier, R.R., 1999. The Niger Delta Petroleum System: Niger Delta Province, Nigeria, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea, Africa Open File Report 99- 50H pp 7-38.
Uguna, C. N., Azri, M. H., Snape, C. E., Meredith, W., Carr, A. D., 2013. A hydrous pyrolysis study to ascertain how gas yields and the extent of maturation for partially matured source rock and bitumen in isolation compared to their whole source rock. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis. 103, 268-277.
Uguna, C. N., Carr, A. D., Snape, C. E., Meredith, W., Castro-Díaz, M., 2012a. A laboratory pyrolysis study to investigate the effect of water pressure on hydrocarbon generation and maturation of coals in geological basins. Organic Geochemistry. 52, 103-113.
Uguna, C. N., Snape, C.E., Meredith, W., Carr, A.D., Scotchman, I.C., Davis, R.C., 2012b. Retardation of hydrocarbon generation and maturation by water pressure in geological basins: an experimental investigation, in: Peters, K.E., Curry, D.J., Kacewicz, M.(Eds.), Basin Modelling: New Horizons in Research and Applications: AAPGHedberg Series. No. 4, 19-37.
Uguna, C.N., Carr, A.D., Snape, C.E., Meredith, W., 2015. High pressure water pyrolysis of coal to evaluate the role of pressure on hydrocarbon generation and source rock maturation at high maturities under geological conditions. Organic Geochemistry. 78, 44–51.
Uguna, C.N., Carr, A.D., Snape, C.E., Meredith, W., Scotchman, I.C., Murray, A., Vane, C.H., 2016. Impact of high water pressure on oil generation and maturation in Kimmeridge Clay andMonterey source rocks: Implications for petroleum retention and gas generation in shale gas systems, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2016), doi: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2016.02.028. Ukwe, C.N., Ibe, C.A., Nwilo, P.C. and Huidobro, P. (2006): Contributing to the WWSD Targets on Oceans and Coasts in West and Central African Region: The Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem Project. International Journal of Ocean and Oceanography Vol 1 (1) 21-44.
Ukwe, C.N. and Ibe, C.A. (2008): A Regional Collaborative Approach in Transboundary Pollution Management in the Guinea Current Region of Western Africa. Journal of Ocean and Coastal Management 53(2010) pp 493-506.
Ulmishek, G.F., and Klemme, H.D., 1990. Depositional Controls, Distribution, and Effectiveness of World's Petroleum Source Rocks. USA Geological Surveys.
Walden, P. 1906., Optische Aktivvitat u. Entstehung des Erdoels, Chem. Zig., 30(1906), p.391 Weber, K. J., and Daukoru, E.M. 1975, Petroleum geology of the Niger delta: 9th World Petroleum Congress, Tokyo, Proceedings, v. 2, p. 209.221.
Welte, D, H., 1965. Relation between Petroleum and Source Rock. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists Vol. 49, No. 12(Dec,1965). pp. 2246-2268.
Whiteman, A.J. 1982. Nigeria: Its Petroleum Geology, Resources and Potential. Graham and Trotman, London, 394 p.
Yoder, H. S. Jr., 1955, Role of water in metamorphism, in Crust of the earth: GSA Special Paper 62, p.505-523.
Article Metrics
Abstract View
: 394 times
Download : 55 times
DOI: 10.57046/KHPL7017
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
Copyright (c) 2019 Proceedings of the Nigerian Academy of Science
.png)